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STATE OF MATTER

from Femosky110 on 06/12/2020 01:15 PM

STATE OF MATTER
Matter in the solid state has a definite volume and shape, with essential particles within the matter -atoms, molecules or ions very close together and fixed into definite position. Matter in the liquid state has a definite volume, with a changeable shape. It easily settles in to fit the shape of its container. Its particles are still close together but move about freely. Matter in the gaseous state does not have a definite shape or volume. It has both variable volume and shape, and adapts to fit its container. Its particles are not close together. They are as well not fixed in place. Matter in the plasma state exhibits variable volume and shape, but like neutral atoms, it possesses a considerable number of ions and electrons, both of which can travel around freely. Plasma is the most widespread form of observable matter in the world.

 

Kinetic Theory of Matter
The Kinetic Theory of Matter states that matter is made up of a large number of small particles - individual atoms or molecules that are in continuous motion. This theory is as well known as the Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter and the Kinetic Theory.

By making a number of simple assumptions, like the idea that matter is made of extensively spaced particles in constant motion, the theory tries to give explanation to the behavior of matter. Two significant areas elucidated are the gush or transmission of heat and the association between pressure, temperature, and volume properties of gases.

Possible Questions you may be asked:

• What are the assumptions of the kinetic theory of matter?

• How does the theory explain heat flow?

• How does the kinetic theory of matter explain pressure and volume?

Assumptions of kinetic theory
The Kinetic Theory of Matter is a guess of how matter ought to behave, based on definite assumptions and estimations. The assumptions are derived from observations and experiments, like the fact that materials consist of small molecules or atoms. Approximations are made to keep the theory from being too complex. One assumption is that the size of the particles is so small that it can be considered a point.

Matter consists of small particles

The number 1 assumption of this theory is that matter consists of a huge number of very small particles that could either be individual atoms or molecules.

Large separation between particles
The second assumption of the theory deals with the disconnection of the particles.

• In a gas, the distance between particles is very large compared to their size, to such extent that there are no attractive or repulsive forces between the molecules of a gas.

• In a liquid, although the particles are still far apart, they are close enough to allow attractive forces lock up the materials to the shape of its container.

• In a solid, the particles are very closely knit together that the forces of attraction shut in the material to a definite shape.

Particles in continuous motion
The third assumption is that all the particles are in continuous motion.

In gases, the motion of the particles is assumed to be haphazard and free. In liquids, the motion is fairly inhibited by the volume of the liquid. In solids, the motion of the particles is strictly confined to a small space, in order for the solid to maintain its shape.

The velocity of each particle determines its kinetic energy.

Collisions transfer energy
The numerous particles often collide with each other. Also, if a gas or liquid is confined in a container, the particles collide with the particles that make up the walls of a container.

Approximations
When atoms or molecules collide, energy may be given off in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Taking this into account could make the theory highly complex, and since the amount of radiation is small in most situations, an approximation is made that this effect is negligible.

Also, atoms and molecules have a discrete size. But charting the collisions of such particles would again make the theory too complex. Thus an approximation is made to say the size of the particles is a simple point, especially compared to the distances involved.

No energy change
Thus, an assumption is that the particles transfer energy in a collision with no net energy change. That means the collisions between the particles are perfectly elastic and no energy is gained or lost during the collision. This follows the Law of the Conservation of Energy.

In reality, the collisions are not perfect, and some energy is lost. But for the sake of simplicity in drawing conclusions, this theory makes the collisions elastic.

Thermal energy and heat flow
The motion of a particle determines its kinetic energy, according to the equation

KE = 1/2MV2

where

• KE is the kinetic energy of the particle

• m is its mass

• V2 is the square of its velocity

The total internal kinetic energy of all the particles is called its thermal energy.

The temperature of an object or collection of matter is the average kinetic energy of the particles. Faster particles means a higher temperature. A thermometer is used to measure the temperature and put it into temperature degrees instead of kinetic energy units.

The heat is the transfer of thermal energy from an object of higher temperature to one of lower temperature. For example, an object feels warm or hot if its temperature is higher than your skin temperature.

The Kinetic Theory of Matter explains heat transfer by conduction, where thermal energy seems to move through a material, warming up cooler areas. This is called heat transfer or heat flow

Processes not covered in this theory are heat transfer by convection and by radiation.

chemistry
Collisions transfer energy
The Kinetic Theory of Matter states that the material's particles have greater kinetic energy and are moving faster at higher temperatures. When a fast moving particle collides with a slower moving particle, it transfers some of its energy to the slower moving particle, increasing the speed of that particle.

If that particle then collides with another particle that is moving faster, its speed will be increased even more. But if it hits a slow moving particle, then it will speed up the third particle.

With billions of moving particles colliding into each other, an area of high energy or high heat will slowly diffuse across the material, making other areas warm too. By the Conservation of Energy, the total energy or total heat of the object will remain the same, but the heat will be evenly distributed throughout the object.

Rate of transfer
The rate at which the kinetic or thermal energy is transferred from one particle to another depends on the separation of the particles and their freedom to move.

In a gas, the particles are allowed to move freely, but their separation distance is great, so heat or energy transfer is slow. In a liquid, the heat transfer by conduction is faster because the particles are closer together.

In a solid, the molecules are constrained into a specific location within the material. Although the particles are closer together than in liquids, the constraints in some materials actually prevent the transfer of heat energy. A good example of that is in wood.

Temperature
One important result of the kinetic theory is that the average molecular kinetic energy is proportional to the absolute temperature of the material. Absolute temperature is measured in the Kelvin scale. But in general, you can say that temperature is the measurement of the average internal kinetic energy of the material or object.

Pressure, volume and temperature
If a gas is enclosed in a container, it exerts pressure on the walls of the container. The Kinetic Theory of Matter explains gas pressure as the total force exerted by gas molecules colliding against the walls of a container.

If the container can expand, like with a balloon or cylinder and piston, increasing the pressure can increase the volume. Like, the balloon will get bigger. Also, if you increase the temperature of the gas--and thus the kinetic energy of its molecules—you increase the pressure or the volume of the container.

This leads to a relationship between pressure, volume and temperature in an ideal gas. (An ideal gas is a gas that follows the assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Matter.) The relationship is

PV = NkT

where:

• P is the pressure of the ideal gas

• V is the volume of the gas container

• N is the number of gas particles

• k is the Boltzman constant in joule per kelvin per particle

• T is the temperature in the absolute or kelvin scale

This equation has a number of implications, including:

• If you decrease the pressure and hold the volume constant, the temperature decreases (principle of a refrigerator)

• If you increase the temperature and hold the pressure constant, the volume increases (heating a balloon)

• Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter

• I. Kinetic Theory of Matter is theory that explains the effects of temperature and pressure on matter

A. 3 Postulates

1. All matter is made up of tiny particles.

2. These particles are in constant motion.

3. Collisions between these particles are perfectly elastic.

• B. Four States of Matter

1. Solid

2. Liquid

3. Gas

4. Plasma

• II. Gases

A. Distinguishing Properties of Gases

1. Gases have no definite shape and no definite volume. They take the shape of their container.

2. Particles move very rapidly in gases.

3. Gases have lower densities thatn solids or liquids because the particles are not as close together.

4. Gases can be compressed because there is alot of space between the particles.

5. They expand when heated.

• B. Gas Pressure

1. A gas exerts a pressure on its container because the gas molecules are constantly colliding with the walls of the container. Each collision exerts a force on the walls of the container.

2. Atmospheric pressure is the pressure that the gases in our atmosphere exert on everything on earth.

Atmospheric pressure is equal to:

a. 101.325 kPa

b. 1 atm

c. 760 mm Hg

d. 760 torr

e. 760 millibars

f. 14.7 lbs/in2

3. Manometer - an instrument used to measure gas pressure.

There are two kinds of manometers:

a. open arm manometer

b. closed arm manometer (also known as a barometer)

C. Motion and Physical States

1. Temperature - a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance.

2. Kinetic Energy - energy an object posses because of its motion. KE = 1/2 mv2 where m = mass and v = velocity

3. absolute zero - the temperature at which all molecular motion stops. Absolute Zero = -273 oC or 0 K

4. Converting from Celsius to Kelvin

• K = oC + 273

• 5. Energy always flows from an object of higher temperature to one of lower temperature until they both reach the same temperature.
6. Heat is the amount of energy transferred from a warmer object to a cooler object. Heat is measured in Joules.

• III. Distinguishing Properties of Liquids

A. Liquids have definite volume and definite shape.

B. Particles slide past one another.

C. Generally liquids are less dense than solids. (Solid water and Liquid water are exceptions)

D. Liquids are less compressible than gases.

E. Liquids are viscous.

1. Viscosity is the internal friction of a liquid. We also say that it is the liquid's resistance to flow.

2. High Molecular Weight - High Viscosity

3. Low Molecular Weight - Low Viscosity

• F. Surface Tension - contractive force along the surface of a liquid.

Example: This is why some insects can walk on water.

Example: Soap decreases surface tension.

G. Vapor Pressure - pressure exerted by the molecules of a confined vapor

H. Heat (Enthapy) of Vaporization: total heat or energy required to evaporate a liquid.

I. Normal Boiling Point: the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the standard atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa).

J. Difference between Boiling and Evaporation:

1. Evaporation: entirely a suface effect that can occur at any temperature (liquid to gas)

2. Boiling: bubbles form at the bottom of a liquid and rise to the top. (liquid to gas) It can only take place at certain temperatures and pressures.

K. Hydrogen Bonding in Water

1. Compounds containing hydrogen bonded to N, O, or F are very polar and form hydrogen bonds.

Hydrogen Bonds are not as strong as an actual chemical bond but it can hold the two molecules firmly together.

2. Ice is less dense than liquid water. This is because water expands when it freezes into ice. This occurs because hydrogen bonding pulls the molecule into an open crytalline structure that occupies more space than the liquid.

• IV. Distinguishing Properties of Solids

A. Solids have definite volume and definite shape.

B. Particles have little movement, but they do vibrate against one another.

C. Pure solids melt at definite temperatures.

D. When solids melt, a definte amount of heat is absorbed.

E. Melting Point: temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid.

F. Heat (Enthalpy) of Fusion: total heat or energy required to melt a substance.

G. All solids are made of crystals. Crystals have repeating, 3-D patterns.

H. Solids can form allotropes. Allotropes are two or more different molecular forms of the same elements.

Three Basic Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory?
Kinetic energy is the energy produced or exerted by an object in motion. This makes 3 basic assumptions. There is matter (the object exists), it is moving (in motion), and it is producing or exerting energy.

Gases : Graham's Laws of Diffusion and Effusion

• Only a few physical properties of gases depends on the identity of the gas.

• Diffusion - The rate at which two gases mix.

• Effusion - The rate at which a gas escapes through a pinhole into a vacuum.

Thomas Graham
Graham's Law of Diffusion

The rate at which gases diffuse is inversely proportional to the square root of their densities.

Since volumes of different gases contain the same number of particles (see Avogadro's Hypothesis), the number of moles per liter at a given T and P is constant. Therefore, the density of a gas is directly proportional to its molar mass (MM).

Graham's Law of Effusion
The rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of either the density or the molar mass of the gas.

The time required for 25-mL samples of different gasses to diffuse through a pinhole into a vacuum.

The Kinetic Molecular Theory and Graham's Law

Since KEavg is dependent only upon T, two different gases at the same temperature must have the same KEavg

Simplify the equation by multiplying both sides by two:

Rearrange to give the following:

Take the square root of both sides to obtain the following relationship between the ratio of the velocities of the gases and the square root of the ratio of their molar masses:

This equation states that the velocity (rate) at which gas molecules move is inversely proportional to the square root of their molar masses.

Diffusion
Diffusion refers to the process by which molecules intermingle as a result of their kinetic energy of random motion. Consider two containers of gas A and B separated by a partition. The molecules of both gases are in constant motion and make numerous collisions with the partition. If the partition is removed as in the lower illustration, the gases will mix because of the random velocities of their molecules. In time a uniform mixture of A and B molecules will be produced in the container.

The tendency toward diffusion is very strong even at room temperature because of the high molecular velocities associated with thethermal energy of the particles.

STOICHIOMETRY

from Femosky110 on 06/12/2020 01:09 PM

STOICHIOMETRY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Stoichiometry is a branch of chemistry that is concerned with the relative quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions. In a balanced chemical reaction, the relationship among quantities of reactants and products characteristically form a ratio of positive numerals. For instance, in a chemical reaction that forms ammonia (NH3), precisely 1 molecule of nitrogen gas (N2 ) reacts with 3 molecules of hydrogen gas (H2) to generate 2 molecules of NH3 . See below:

 

N

2 + 3H

2 → 2NH

3

This type of stoichiometry which describes the quantitative relationships between substances when they take part in chemical reactions is referred to as reaction stoichiometry. In the above sample reaction, reaction stoichiometry explains the 1:3:2 molecular rations of nitrogen, hydrogen, and ammonia.

Stoichiometry can be employed to estimate quantities like the amount of products in mass, moles and volume that can be produced with given reactants and percentage yield. This means the percentage of the particular reactant that is converted into the product. Stoichiometry extimations can guess the way elements and components diluted in a standard solution react in experimental conditions.

Stoichiometry is founded on the law of conservation of mass which states that the mass of all the reactants in a chemical reaction is equivalent to the mass of the products.

Composition stoichiometry explains the quantitative (mass) relationships between elements that make up a compound. For instance, composition stoichiometry explains the nitrogen to hydrogen ratio in the compound ammonia (NH3): 1 mol of ammonia is composed of 1 mol of nitrogen and 3 mol of hydrogen. As the nitrogen atom is roughly 14 times heavier than the hydrogen atom, the mass ratio is 14:3; consequently 17 kg of ammonia is composed of 14 kg of nitrogen and 3 kg of hydrogen.

A stoichiometric amount or stoichiometric ratio of a reagent is the most favorable amount or ratio at which the reaction proceeds to completion and in which

1. Every one of the reagent is used up

2. There is no shortage of the reagent

3. There is no surplus of the reagent.

A non-stoichiometric mixture, which the chemical reaction has reached the completion, is liable to have only the restrictive reagent consumed completely.

Although nearly all chemical reactions possesses integer-ratio stoichiometry in amount of matter units -moles, number of particles, a few non stoichiometric compounds that cannot be shown ratios of distinct intergers are available. These substances, consequently, go against the law of definite proportions that forms the foundation of stoichiometry together with the law of multiple proportions.

Gas stoichiometry deals with reactions involving gases, where the gases are at a known temperature, pressure, and volume, and can be assumed to be ideal gases. For gases, the volume ratio is ideally the same by the ideal gas law, but the mass ratio of a single reaction has to be calculated from the molecular masses of the reactants and products. In practice, due to the existence of isotopes, molar masses are used instead when calculating the mass ratio.

Laws of chemical combination
It was an Englishman of the 17th century known as Robert Boyle who after his research and findings on the behaviour of gases, made available an unambiguous evidence for the atomic composition of matter. He was the foremost to describe an element as a material that cannot be chemically broken down into a simper form. He was of the opinion that a number of dissimilar elements might exist in nature.

Laws of chemical combination
The fundamental laws of chemical combination are:

• The law of conservation of mass

• The law of constant composition, and

• The law of multiple proportions.

The law of conservation of mass
This law states that the mass of a closed system will stay constant over time, in spite of the processes acting within the system. A comparable statement is that mass cannot be created/destroyed, despite the fact that it can change into one form or the other. This means for any chemical process in a stopped up system, the mass of the reactants must be the same with the mass of the products.

Law of constant composition
The law of constant composition states that the composition of a particular substance is always the same, in spite of the way the substance was made or wherever the substance exists. If take water for instance, it is known that a molecule of water always consist of 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen. Whenever the composition of a molecule alters, the result will no longer be the same substance but a different one possessing different properties.

The law of multiple proportions
The law of multiple proportions states that when elements combine to form compounds they do so in a ratio of minute whole numbers. For instance carbon and oxygen react to form CO or CO2, but not in fractions like CO1.2. In addition, the law states that if two elements form more than one compound between them; then the ratios of the masses of the second element united with a fixed mass of the foremost element will as well exist in ratios of small non-fractional integers.

Types of Chemical Equations
A chemical equation is composed of chemical formulas of the reactants -the reacting substances and the chemical formula of the products- the substances created during the chemical reaction. The two are alienated by an arrow symbol which is normally read as "yields" and every individual substance's chemical formula is alienated from the rest by a plus sign.

For an example, the equation for the reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium can be shown as:

2 HCl + 2 Na → 2 NaCl + H2

It is highly crucial for a chemist to be capable of writing accurate balanced equations and to interpret equations written by others. It is also extremely useful for him or her to be aware of the way to foretell the products of some specific types of reactions.

A Chemical Equation shows:

1. The reactants which combine together in the reaction.

2. The products which are created by the reaction.

3. The amounts of every substance used and every substance formed.

Two significant principles to bear in mind when writing a chemical equation:

1. Every chemical compound has a formula which cannot be changed.

2. A chemical equation gives account of all the atoms used in the chemical reaction. This is an application of the Law of Conservation of Matter. It states that in a chemical reaction atoms are neither created nor destroyed.

C. A few things to bear in mind about writing equations:

1. The diatomic elements when they stand alone are always written as H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2

2. The sign, →, is used to denote "yields" and illustrates the direction of the action.

3. A minute delta, ( ), on top of the arrow illustrates that heat has been supplied.

4. A double arrow, ↔, illustrates that the reaction is reversible and can move in both directions.

5. Before starting to balance an equation, crosscheck every one of formulas to ensure that they are right. You must never alter a formula all through the balancing of an equation.

6. Balancing of an equation is done by putting coefficients in front of the formulas to make sure you have got equivalent number of atoms of everyone of the element on the two sides of the arrow.

Four basic types of chemical reactions
A. Synthesis or composition reaction:

• In this type of reaction, two or more elements or compounds may mingle to form a more complex compound.

The basic formula for this type of reaction is : A + X → AX

Some instances of synthesis reactions are:

1. Metal + oxygen → metal oxide

EX. 2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO(s)

2. Non-metal + oxygen → nonmetallic oxide

EX. C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

3. Metal oxide + water → metallic hydroxide

EX. MgO(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(s)

4. Non-metallic oxide + water → acid

EX. CO2(g) + H2O(l) → ; H2CO3(aq)

5. Metal + non-metal → salt

EX. 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

6. A few nonmetals combine with each other.

EX. 2P(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2PCl3(g)

You ought to know these two reactions and try to remember them:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH2(g)

1. NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)
B. Decomposition reaction:

• In a decomposition reaction, one compound breaks down into its component parts or simpler compounds.

Basic equation formula for this type of reaction is AX → A + X

Some instances of decomposition reactions are

1. Metallic carbonates, when heated, form metallic oxides and CO2(g).

EX. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

2. The majority metallic hydroxides, when heated, decompose to form metallic oxides and water.

EX. Ca(OH)2(s) → CaO(s) + H2O(g)

3. Metallic chlorates, when heated, decompose to form metallic chlorides and oxygen.

EX. 2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

4. Some acids, when heated, decompose to form non metallic oxides and water.

EX. H2SO4 → H2O (l) + SO3(g)

C. Replacement reaction:

• A more reactive element takes the place of another element in a compound and frees the less active one.

• Basic form: A + BX → AX + B or AX + Y → AY + X

Examples of replacement reactions
1. Replacement of a metal in a compound by a more active metal.

EX. Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

2. Replacement of hydrogen in water by an active metal.

EX. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

EX. Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)

3. Replacement of hydrogen in acids by active metals.

EX. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

4. Replacement of nonmetals by more active nonmetals.

EX. Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(l)

D. Ionic:

• This takes place among ions in aqueous solution. The reaction will take place when one pair of ions approach together to create at least one among the following:

1. a precipitate

2. a gas

3. Water or a number of other non-ionized substances.

Basic form of the equation: AX + BY → AY + BX

Some examples of ionic reactions:

1. Formation of precipitate.

EX. NaCl (aq) + AgNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)

EX. BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + BaSO4(s)

2. Formation of a gas.

EX. HCl(aq) + FeS(s) → FeCl2(aq) + H2S(g)

3. Formation of water. When a reaction takes place between an acid and a base, the reaction is known as a neutralization reaction.)

EX. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE
The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest formula of that compound. A molecular formula is the equivalent to or is a multiplication of the empirical formula, and is focused on the definite number of atoms of every type in the compound. For instance, if the empirical formula of a compound is C3H8, its molecular formula might be be C3H8 , C6H16 and so on .

CHEMICAL BONDING

from Femosky110 on 06/12/2020 01:08 PM

Chemical Bonding
There are numerous types of chemical bonds and forces acting jointly to combine molecules together. The two most fundamental types of bonds are ionic and covalent bond. In ionic bonding, atoms transfer electrons to each other. Ionic bonds need at least one electron donor and one electron acceptor. On the contrary, atoms that have similar electro negativity share electrons through covalent bonds as for such atoms, donating or receiving electrons are not favorable.

 

Chemical bonding is a means through which atoms unite to form molecules. Chemical bond exists between two atoms or groups of atoms when the forces acting between them are physically powerful enough to result to the formation of an aggregate with adequate stability to be termed an autonomous species. The no of bonds an atom forms matches up to the number of electron at its outer shell. Bond energy is the quantity of energy necessary to break a bond and create neutral atoms. In line with Coulomb's law every bond as a result of attraction that exist between unlike charges. On the other hand, the manner this force is manifested varies depending on the atoms concerned. The main types of chemical bond are the ionic, covalent, metallic, and hydrogen bonds. The ionic and covalent bonds are ideal forms but the majority of the bond types are of an intermediary type.

Bonding energy between two atoms
The interaction energy between two atoms at equilibrium is referred to as the bonding energy between the two atoms. To break the bond, this energy must be supplied from outside. Breaking the bond means that the two atoms become infinitely separated. In real substances that are made up of varieties of atoms, bonding is calculated by stating the bonding energy of the entire substances in terms of the disjointing distances among all atoms. There are different types of bonding:

• Primary bonding: Ionic (involves transfer of outermost electrons)

• Covalent (involves sharing of outermost electrons, directional)

• Metallic (involves delocalization of valence electrons)

• Secondary or van der Waals Bonding:(widespread, but less strong than primary bonding)

• Dipole-dipole

• H-bonds

• Polar molecule-induced dipole

• Variable dipole (the most weak bond)

The Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is the total transfer of outermost electron(s) between atoms. It is the type of chemical bond that produces two oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds, the metal loses electrons to turn into a positively charged cation, while the non-metal receives those electrons to turn into a negatively charged anion. For ionic bond to occur there must be an electron donor, metal, and an electron acceptor, non metal.

Ionic Bonding is occurs because metals have a small number of electrons in their outmost orbital. Through the loss of those electrons, these metals can attain noble-gas configuration and meet the octet rule. Likewise, non metals that have nearly 8 electrons in their outermost shell have the tendency of readily accepting electrons to attain their noble gas configuration. In ionic bonding, over 1 electron can be donated or received to fulfill the octet rule. The charge on the anion and cation matches up with the number of electrons contributed or received. In ionic bonds, the net charge of the compound must be zero.

The ionic bond is a chemical bond formed as a result of attraction between two opposite charged ions. The atoms of metallic elements like sodium easily lose their valence electrons, whereas the atoms of non-metals like chlorine have the tendency to gain electrons. The reaction between them results to a highly stable ions which maintain their individual structures while approaching one another to form a stable molecule or crystal. In an ionic crystals such as sodium chloride, no separate diatomic molecules are present; instead, the crystal is made up of composed of independent Na+ and Cl− ions, with each being attracted to adjoining ions of the opposite charge giving rise to one single gigantic molecule.

chemistry
The covalent bond
The covalent bond is the type of bond formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons. There is no net charge on each of the atoms; the attractive force between them is formed through the interaction of the pair of electron within the nuclei of both atoms. When the interacting atoms share more than two electrons, it leads to the creation of double and triple bonds. This is because every shared pair forms its own particular bond. The interacting atoms, by sharing their electrons are able to attain a highly stable electron configuration that correspond to that an inert gas.

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is the chemical bond that results from sharing of electrons between atoms. This type of bonding arises between two atoms of the identical element or elements that are placed close to each other in the periodic table. Covalent bonding occurs mainly between non metals; but it can as well be found between non metals and metals alike.

Polar and non-polar physical properties of covalent compounds

Physical properties Covalent compounds
States (at room temperature) Solid, liquid, gas
Electrical conductivity Usually none
Electrical conductivity Usually none
Boiling point and Melting Varies, but usually lower than ionic compounds
Solubility in water Varies, but usually lower than ionic compounds
If we take methane (CH4), as an example; in methane, carbon shares one electron pair with each of the 4 hydrogen atom; so that the total number of electrons shared by carbon is eight, which matches up with the numbers of electron in the valence shell of neon; every hydrogen atom shares two electrons, which matches up with the electron configuration of helium.

In the majority of covalent bonds, every one of the atom contribute just a single electron to the shared pair. In some instances however, the two electrons are donated from the same atom. When this happens, it gives rise to a partially ionic character giving rise to what is called a coordinate link. In actual fact, a purely covalent bond can only be found among two identical atoms.

Covalent bonds play a significant role in organic chemistry due to the capability of the carbon atom to form 4 covalent bonds. These bonds are arranged in specific directions in space, resulting to the complex geometry of organic molecules. If every one of the four bonds is one just like in methane, the resulting molecule will have the shape of a tetrahedron. The significance of shared electron pairs was originally discovered by the

American chemist G. N. Lewis (1916), who stated that there are only extremely few stable molecules that exist which have a total numbers of electrons that is odd. His octet rule permits chemists to forecast the most likely bond structure and charge allocation for molecules and ions. With the initiation of quantum mechanics, it was recognized that the electrons in a shared pair must possess opposite spin, as required by the Pauli Exclusion Principle.

The molecular orbital theory
The molecular orbital theory was developed to foretell the accurate sharing of the electron density in a variety of molecular structures. The American chemist Linus Pauling initiated the concept of resonance to clarify how stability is achieved when above one practical molecular structure is achievable: the actual molecule is a coherent mixture of the two structures.

Metallic and hydrogen bond
Contrary to ionic and covalent bonds, which are copiously available in a great number of molecules, the metallic and hydrogen bonds are highly specific.

The metallic bond is the bond accountable for the crystalline structure of pure metals. This bond cannot be ionic due to the fact that every one of its atoms is identical. It cannot also be covalent ordinarily due to the fact that there are very few valence pairs of electrons to be shared among adjoining atoms. As an alternative, the valence electrons are shared jointly by all the atoms in the crystal. The electrons act as a free gas moving within the lattice of preset, positive ionic cores. The intense mobility of the electrons in a metal gives explanations for its high thermal and electrical conductivity.

Hydrogen bonding is a very powerful electrostatic attraction between two independent polar molecules. That is between the molecules in which the charges are unequally dispersed, characteristically containing nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. These elements have physically powerful electron-attracting power, and the hydrogen atom serves as an overpass between them. The hydrogen bond, which plays a crucial role in molecular biology, is by far weaker than the ionic or covalent bonds. Hydrogen bond is answerable for the structure of ice.

Bonding in Organic Chemistry
Ionic and Covalent bonds are the two top limits of bonding. Polar covalent is the midway type of bonding in between the two extremes. Some ionic bonds possess covalent character and some covalent bonds are partly ionic. For instance, the majority of carbon-based compounds are covalently bonded, however they can also be partly ionic.

Polarity is an evaluation of the separation of charge in a compound. A compound's polarity is reliant on the symmetry of the compound together with the differences in electronegativity between atoms. Polarity arises when the electron pushing elements from the left side of the periodic table, shares electrons with the electron-pulling-elements from the right side of the period table. This generates a spectrum of polarity, with ionic (polar) at one end, covalent (non-polar) at the other end, and polar covalent in the center.

In co-operation, these bonds are vital in Organic Chemistry. Ionic bonds are significant because they allow the synthesis of specific organic compounds. Covalent bonds are particularly essential since most carbon molecules interact primarily through covalent bonding. Covalent bonding permits molecules to share electrons with other molecules, forming long chains of compounds and giving rise to more complexity in life.

chemistry
Polar and Non-Polar Shapes
Molecules that have a linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, or octahedral shape, are non-polar in nature. These are shapes which do not have non-bonding lone pairs like Methane, CH4. However if a few bonds are polar while the rest are not, there will be a general dipole, and the molecule will be polar. Example Chloroform, CHCl3.

Dipole-Dipole Bonds
When two polar molecules come close to each other, they will position themselves in order to let the negative and positive sides' line up. There will be an attractive force linking the two molecules together, but it is not virtually as well-built a force as the intramolecular bonds. This explains the way different types of molecules bond together to form bulky solids or liquids.

Van der Waals forces are initiated by temporary dipoles formed when electron locations are asymmetrical. The electrons are continually tracking the nucleus, and by chance they could come very close together. The uneven concentration of electrons could result to one side of the atom becoming more negatively-charged than the other, forming a temporary dipole. Van der Waals forces are the reason why nitrogen can be liquified.

PERIODICITY CHEMISTRY

from Femosky110 on 06/12/2020 01:06 PM

PERIODIC CHEMISTRY
The periodic table is a table showing the elements prearranged in order of increasing atomic number, in accordance with the periodic law. In the periodic table, elements that have related chemical properties and electronic structures are placed in vertical columns known as the groups.

 

Periodicity of the elements
Periodicity is one among the basic aspects of the elements in the periodic table.

What Is Periodicity?
Periodicity of elements means the persistent trends that are visible in the properties of element. These trends that exist in the property of elements became noticeable to Mendeleev when he prearranged the elements in the periodic table order of increasing mass. From the properties that were displayed by the recognized elements, it was easy for Mendeleev to foretell where there were "breaks" in his table, or elements that were not yet discovered.

The contemporary periodic table is extremely related to Mendeleev's table, but in the present day elements are prearranged in the order of increasing atomic number, which showcases the number of protons in an atom. There are no unidentified elements; even though fresh elements can be formed which have even larger numbers of protons.

The Periodic Properties are enumerated below:
1. Ionization energy – Ionization energy is energy needed to remove an electron from an ion or gaseous atom.

2. Atomic radius – Atomic radius is the distance between the centers of two atoms that are in close relationship with each other.

3. Electronegativity – This is a measure of the ability of an atom to form a chemical bond

4. Electron affinity –This is an ability of an atom to accept an electron

Periodic Trends or Periodicity
The periodicity of the above properties follows trends as you go across a row or period on the periodic table or down a column or group on the periodic table.

While moving from Left to Right-across the period

• Ionization Energy Increases

• Electronegativity Increases

• Atomic Radius Decreases

While moving Top to Bottom-down the group

• Ionization Energy Decreases

• Electronegativity Decreases

• Atomic Radius Increases

The definition of the Periodic Law
The Periodic Law states that the physical and chemical properties of elements in the periodic table reappear in a methodical and conventional way when the elements are prearranged in order of increasing atomic number.

chemistry
The elements of the first transition series
Even though the transition elements have a lot of broad chemical similarities, every one of them has a thorough chemistry of its own. The adjoining relationships are typically found amongst the three elements in every vertical group of the periodic table, even though inside every group, the element of the first series typically varies more from the rest two than they vary from each other. The majority of the first series elements are more recognizable and theoretically significant than the heavier members of their vertical group.

A small number of the chemical trends among the elements of the first transition series may be capsulated.

1. Titanium to manganese exhibits the highest oxidation state, which is normally found among oxo compounds, fluorides, or chlorides and corresponds to the total number of 3d and 4s electrons in the atom. The stability of this uppermost oxidation state decreases from titanium in the +4 state to manganese in the +7 state. Next to manganese—ie among iron, cobalt, and nickel, oxidation states related to the loss of all 3d and 4s electrons do not take place; higher oxidation states generally turn out to be increasingly more complicated to reach because the growing nuclear charge makes the 3d electrons to be additionally securely bound. It is only the following elements that exhibits very high oxidation states - chromium (+5, +6 states), manganese (+5, +6, +7 states), and iron (+5, +6 states) and with the exception of fluorides, such as chromium pentafluoride, CrF5 (where the chromium is in the +5 state), and chromium hexafluoride, CrF6 (where chromium is in the +6 state), and oxofluorides like manganese trioxide fluoride, MnO3F (occur with manganese in the +7 state), the most important chemistry in these variable oxidation states is that of oxo anions such as permanganate, MnO4− (+7 state); chromate, CrO42− (+6 state); and ferrate, FeO42−(+6 state). Every one of these compounds is very good oxidizing agent.

2. The oxides of the entire element become more acidic as the oxidation number increases, and the halides become more covalent and able to easily undergo hydrolysis.

3
. In the oxo anions that are mostly found in the higher oxidation states, the metal atom is tetrahedrally bordered by oxygen atoms, while in the oxides created in the lower oxidation states, the atoms are typically octahedrally synchronized.

4. In the oxidation states of +2 and +3, complexes in aqueous solution or in crystals is typically four, five or six step.

5. Oxidation states less than +2 are not regularly found in the chemistries of the transition elements, apart for copper although it could be found in all the elements through the use of ligands like that of carbon monoxide.

The group 7 elements (The halogens)
Elements of group 7 are as well known as the halogens. They consist of fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. All of them have seven valence electrons in their outside shell.

In a displacement reaction, a less reactive element is displaced by a more reactive element.

The group 7 elements are put in the vertical column second from right in the periodic table.

Chlorine, bromine and iodine are the three Group 7 elements that are mostly available in the secondary school. Fluorine is excessively reactive and cannot easily be produced and preserved in the school. Reaction of Group 1 elements reacts with group 7 element to form salt and because these, they are known as ('salt formers').

Properties and uses of the halogens
The table summarizes some of the properties and uses of three halogens.

Group 7 element Properties Typical use
Chlorine Green gas Sterilising water

Bromine Orange liquid Making pesticides and plastics

Iodine Grey solid Sterilising wounds

Iodine forms a purple vapour when it is warmed.

Group 7 properties
The halogens are diatomic which means that they exist as molecules, each with one pair of atoms. The formulas for their molecules are written as Cl2, bromine Br2 and iodine I2.

Physical properties of halogens
The halogens show trends in their physical properties down the group.

Melting point and boiling point
The halogens or elements of group 7 have low melting points and boiling points. This is a characteristic property of non-metals. Fluorine has the smallest melting point and boiling point. The melting points and boiling points of halogens starting form flouring increases down the group.

Melting and boiling points of Group 7 elements
State of the halogens at room temperature

25°C is normally considered as the room temperature. At this particular temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine and astatine are solids. There is for that reason a trend in state from gas to liquid to solid as you move down the group.

The Colour of the halogen
The halogens happen to be darker as you move down the group. Fluorine is extremely pale yellow, chlorine is yellow-green, and bromine is red-brown. Iodine crystals are glossy purple - but they when they are heated up, they easily change into a dark purple vapour.

Predictions
When we can see a trend in the properties of some of the elements in a group, you can likely calculate the properties of other elements in that group. Astatine is placed after iodine in Group 7. The colour of halogens turns darker as you move down the group. Iodine is purple colour, and, as we would imagine, astatine is black-coloured.

The Halogens are commonly non–metals. 'Halogens' means 'salt formers' and the most widespread compound is sodium chloride which can be found naturally in the form of deposits of 'rock salt' or the much more abundantly as the 'sea salt' in the seas and oceans.

The reason Why the melting points and boiling points of Group 7 elements increase with atomic number or down the group

This increase in melting/boiling points down Group 7 is as a result of the increasing weak electrical intermolecular attractive forces that occur with an increase in the size of atom or molecule.

In general, the greater the number of electrons in a molecule, the greater the force of attraction that exist between the molecules.

A table showing the properties of group 7
Symbol and Name Atomic Number Electron arrangement State and colour at room temperature and pressure Melting point Boiling point atom radius pm
F Fluorine 9 2.7 pale yellow gas –219oC, 54K –188oC, 85K 64
Cl Chlorine 17 2.8.7 pale green gas –101oC, 172K –34oC, 239K 99
Br Bromine 35 2.8.18.7 dark red liquid –7oC, 266K 59oC, 332K 114
I Iodine 53 2.8.18.18.7 dark (black) crumbly solid 114oC, 387K 184oC, 457K 133
• The halogens are all poor conductors of heat and electricity – characteristics of non–metals.

• When they are in the solid state, they are brittle and crumbly example. iodine.

• The density increases down Group 7.

• The size of the atom gets bigger down Group 7 as more inner electron shells are filled going down from one period to another.

Chemical features, similarities, and physical property and reactivity trends
1. The atoms all have 7 outer electrons, this outer electron similarity, just like any other Group in the Periodic Table, gives them a very similar chemical properties.

2. They form a single charged negative ions e.g. chloride Cl– because they are one electron less than that of a noble gas electron structure. They only need to gain one negative electron (reduction) to be stable and this gives them a surplus electric charge of –1. These ions formed by the halogens are known as the halide ions, two other halide ions are called the bromide Br–and iodide I– ions.

3. They form ionic compounds with metals e.g. sodium chloride Na+Cl–.

4. The Halogens form covalent compounds with non–metals and with themselves.

5. The bonding in the molecule of halogen compound involves single covalent bonds like the hydrogen chloride HCl or H–Cl.

Important things to note when naming halogen compounds:
When joined with other elements to form simple compounds, the name of the halogen element alters a little from ...ine to ...ide.

Fluorine forms a fluoride (ion F–), chlorine forms a chloride (ion Cl–), bromine a bromide (ion Br–) and iodine an iodide (ion I–).

The other element at the beginning of the compound name like the hydrogen, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and so on remains unaltered.

So archetypal halogen compounds are named as follows:

• Potassium fluoride, hydrogen chloride, sodium chloride, calcium bromide, magnesium iodide and so on.

The elements of group 7 all exist as diatomic molecules ie X2 or X–X, where X stands for the halogen atom.

A halogen that is more reactive displaces a less reactive one from its salts.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

from Femosky110 on 06/12/2020 01:05 PM

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Atoms are fundamental building blocks of matter that cannot be further divided by any chemical means. What are elements?

 

Elements are constituents of matter. There are 92 natural elements. Elements like hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are elements that make up the majority of living things. Other groups of element that exist in living things are: magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium.

Many elements were discovered before the late 1800's. A Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev then proposed an arrangement of elements based on their atomic masses. In the modern time, elements are no longer arranged based on their atomic masses but according to their atomic numbers.

The word atom is a derivative of the Greek word atom which means undividable. The Greeks came to a conclusion that matter could be further divided into particles that are too tiny to be seen with the naked eye. These tiny indivisible particles of matter were referred to as atoms.

An atom is made up of three types of particles:

• Protons

• Neutrons, and

• Electron.

chemistry
The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons. The electron of an atom resolves round the nucleus of an atom in an orbit known as shells.

Neutrons are neutral and have no electrical charge while protons and electrons are electrically charged. While Protons are positively charged and have a relative charge of +1, electrons are negatively charged with a relative charge of -1.

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as its atomic number. Atoms are arranged in atomic number order in the periodic table while electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells. Each energy level holds a definite numbers of electrons.

The electronic structure of an atom is an explanation of the manner the electrons are arranged, which can be demonstrated in a diagram or through numbers. The position of an element in the periodic table and its electronic structure interrelated.

The atomic mass of an element is greatly determined by the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. For instance, in a mass number of 150; 149 lbs which equivalent to 15 oz is protons and neutrons while only 1 oz. is the electron's mass. The mass of an electron is extremely small - 9.108 X 10-28 grams.

It is the number of protons in an atom that establishes the atomic number. For example, Hydrogen is with an atomic number of 1.The number of protons in an element is invariable (example, the number of proton in Hydrogen (H) =1 and that of Uranium (Ur) = 92 but the number of neutron may well differ, therefore the mass number (protons + neutrons) of an element could differ.

A particular element may have differing numbers of neutrons; the different forms of an element with the same number of proton but with differing numbers of neutron are referred to as isotopes. Isotopes have the same chemical properties but the physical properties of a number of isotopes might be different.

Some isotopes are radioactive in nature. This means that give out energy while they decompose and break down to a more stable form. This gives rise to another element.

Half-life of a radioactive element is the time that it takes for half of the atoms of that element to decay into stable form. An example of element that exhibits isotopy is oxygen. The element-Oxygen with an atomic number of 8 may possibly have 8 or 9, or 10 neutrons.

chemistry
Atomic Symbols and Isotopes
The atom of every element is composed of electrons, protons and neutrons. Atoms of the same element possess the same number of protons and electrons but the number of neutrons can vary. When the neutrons vary such elements are referred to as isotopes. Due to these isotopes, it got crucial to formulate a notation to differentiate an isotope from the other. This notation is known as the atomic symbol. The atomic symbol is usually denoted with three different letters:

1. The X: This is used to represent the element.

2. The A: This is a symbol that represents the atomic number. This is the number of protons situated on the left side of letter A as a subscript.

3. The Z: This is used to denote the mass no. The mass number is equal to the number of protons and neutrons in the isotope usually placed on top of letter Z as a left superscript.

Relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the ratio of the average mass of atoms of that element to 1/12 of the mass of carbon-12 isotope.

IUPAC's definition of Relative atomic mass:
An atomic weight or relative atomic mass of an element is the ratio of the standard mass per atom of the element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of 12C.

Relative atomic mass scale
The mass of atoms and other tiny particles is calculated on the atomic mass scale as a relative number put side by side the carbon atom. The carbon 12 atom is allocated with the value of exactly 12.0000 on the scale and the whole thing else is calculated with respect to that figure.

Carbon atom Magnesium atom Hydrogen atom
mass = 12 mass = 2 x carbon atom mass = 1/12 x carbon atom
The magnesium atom has double the atomic mass of the carbon atom, so a magnesium atom has a relative mass of 24.

3 helium atoms have atomic mass equivalent to the mass of a carbon atom. This means that each of the 3 helium atoms has a relative atomic mass of 4. The relative atomic mass of an element can either be written as Ar or RAM for short.

Relative molecular mass

Molecules are merely groups of atoms. Therefore they are as well measured on the relative mass scale with carbon 12 just like in relative atomic mass.

Hydrogen atom Oxygen atom water molecule
mass = 1 mass = 16 mass = (2 x 1) + 16 = 18
A water molecule for example has a mass of 3/2 times relative that of a carbon 12 atoms, consequently the relative molecular mass of water is equal to 18.

The relative molecular mass of a substance is obtained by adding up the relative masses of all the atoms that make up a molecule of that substance.

All masses are calculated relative to the mass of a 12C isotope = 12.0000 atomic mass units.

Since relative molecular mass is a comparative calculation, it is not denoted with any unit.

For instance: Benzene has the molecular formula C6H6

A benzene molecule contains 6 carbon atoms and 6 hydrogen atoms.

The relative molecular mass = (6 x relative atomic mass of carbon) + (6 x relative atomic mass of hydrogen)

The relative molecular mass of benzene = (6 x 12) + (6 x 1) = 78

The relative molecular mass of an element can either be written as RMM or Mr for short.

Mole:
The mole is the amount of substance that contains as many "elemental particles - atoms, molecules, ions, electrons as the number of atoms in 12g of carbon-12 isotope.

1 mole of a substance is equal to 6.022 x 1023 items

Subatomic Particles of an atom and their properties

All atoms are composed of three subatomic particles: Protons, neutron and electrons.

The properties of these three sub atomic particles are tabulated below:

Particle Charge Mass (g) Mass (amu)

Proton +1 1.6727 x 10-24 g 1.007316
Neutron 0 1.6750 x 10-24 g 1.008701
Electron -1 9.110 x 10-28 g 0.000549
What we have used in the above table is a unit of mass called the atomic mass unit (amu). This is a better unit to use than grams when discussing masses of atoms. It is defined with the intention that both protons and neutrons have a mass of just about 1 amu. The significant points to remember are bulleted below:

• Protons and neutrons have roughly the same mass, while the electron is more or less 2000 times less heavy.

• Protons and electrons bear charges of equivalent size, but opposite charge. Neutrons have no charge ie they are neutral.

It was at one time believed that protons, neutrons and electrons were spread out in a somewhat uniform fashion to form the atom according to J.J. Thompson's plum pudding model of the atom but in reality the actual arrangement of the atom is rather different.

Electrons move about rapidly just about the nucleus and make up almost the whole volume of the atom. The quantum mechanics are essential to give details of the motion of an electron about the nucleus, but we can say that the sharing of electrons round an atom is in a spherical form.

The force that holds an atom together
The electron which is negatively charged is attracted to the nucleus which is positively charged by a Columbic attraction.

The protons and neutrons are mutually bonded in the nucleus by the strong nuclear force.

The relationship between the structures of an atom with its properties

Chemical reactions occur when there is either a transfer or a sharing of electrons between atoms of same or different elements. What this means is that the chemical properties of an element is for the most part reliant on the number of electrons in one atom of that element. Protons as well play a noteworthy role for the reason that the propensity of an atom to either lose, gain or share electron is reliant on the electrical charge of the nucleus.

Therefore, it is right to conclude that the chemical properties of an atom is reliant on the number of electrons and protons of the atom and the number of neutrons does not add to the chemical properties of that atom.

On the other hand, the mass and radioactive properties of an atom are reliant on the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

chemistry
Atomic Number (Z) -The no of protons

Mass Number (A) - The no of protons] + [the no of neutrons]

The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom are uniquely specified by the following symbol

ASyC, where:

• Sy = The symbol of an element like C, N, Cr) -defines the no of protons

• A = The mass number-[the no of protons] + [the no of neutrons]

• C = The net charge- [the no of protons] – [ the no of electrons]

For instance: A neutral boron 10 atom with 10B

A boron atom according to the periodic table has 5 protons in the nucleus Z = 5.

Since the boron atom is a neutral atom, the number of electrons ought to be equal to the number of protons, 5 electrons.

The mass number of Boron is 10. Therefore, the number of neutrons is A - Z = 10 - 5 = 5 neutrons.

CONSERVATION OF RESOURCES

from Femosky110 on 06/11/2020 01:57 PM

Ways Of Ensuring Conservation Of Natural Resources
Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are well thought-out to be valuable in their comparatively natural form. A natural resource's significance relies in the quantity of the substance available and the demand for it.

 

The demand for a natural resource is in turn determined by its efficiency in production. A substance is usually considered a natural resource when the primary activities connected with it are extraction and purification, as opposed to production.

Therefore, mining, petroleum extraction, fishing, hunting, and forestry are normally considered natural-resource industries, while agriculture is not.

Natural resources are majorly classified into renewable and non-renewable resources. Renewable resources are normally living resources like fish, reindeer, coffee, and forests, which can regenerate or renew themselves if they are not over-utilized but used sustainably.

Once renewable resources are eaten at a rate that exceeds their natural rate of replication, the standing stock will reduce and subsequently run out.

The rate of sustainable use of a renewable resource is determined by the substitution rate and amount of standing stock of that particular natural resource. Non-living renewable natural resources are soil and water.

Flow renewable resources are extremely much like renewable resources, only they do not require regeneration, like the renewable resources. Flow renewable resources comprise wind, tides and solar radiation.

Resources can as well be classified on the basis of their basis as biotic and abiotic.

Biotic resources are obtained from living organisms. Abiotic resources are obtained from the non-living things like land, water, and air. Mineral and power resources are as well classified as abiotic resources although a few of them are derived from nature.

Both extraction of the fundamental resource and refining it into a purer, straight usable type like metals and refined oils are usually taken as natural-resource activities, although the refined products may not essentially take place near the extraction point.

A nation's natural resources frequently showcase its wealth and economic strength in the world economy.

Developed nations are nations which are less dependent on natural resources for wealth, as a result of their greater dependence on infrastructural capital for production.

Agencies responsible for conservation of Natural resources
A lot of nations have laws protecting species in danger of extinction. An international treaty, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), was inaugurated in 1975 and it outlawed trade of endangered animals and animal parts.

In the United States, for example, the Endangered Species Act (ESA) was enacted in 1973 to defend endangered or vulnerable species and their habitats.

A fresh scientific field, conservation biology, studies manners to halt the destruction of biodiversity and reinstate natural habitats.

In the United States and Canada, forests are exposed to extensive logging, known as clear-cutting, which destroys plant and animal habitat and leaves the landscape stripped and barren if not appropriately reforested.

A few age-long forests of about 200 to 1,200 years old are still found but are endangered by logging interests. Until the 1990s, the U.S. Forest Service was instructed by Congress to make the most of the harvest of timber in order to supply jobs.

Nevertheless within the late 1980s and early 1990s, environmentalists sued the government for breach the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), and intense logging was taken as non sustainable.

Consequently, the timber harvest was minimized and foresters were instructed to abide by a more sustainable policy known as ecosystem management.

This policy necessitated foresters to concentrate on conserving natural habitats instead of capitalizing mostly on tree harvest. In spite of this alteration, many, many very old forests remain unprotected.

b) Conservation Laws
Conservation of natural resources like agriculture, fossil fuels, forestry, waters, and so on is a growing national and international issue, and the complex range of statutes, regulations, and rulings that consist of the body of environmental and natural resources law is in a steady change.

Natural resource lawyers ought not to only have all round knowledge of environmental law, but as well a fundamental perception of the underlying science and the industrial processes in question.

Natural resource attorneys make available a broad array of services.

They may advise clients on land use matters and in the ownership and disposition of natural resources like water, fisheries, timber, minerals, and so on and may stand for clients before the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management and other resource agencies.

Additionally, they may advise clients in the use of public lands and resources and in the establishment of energy projects with the help of renewable resources.

Since water is one of the most essential resources, a lot of natural resources attorneys assist find the way through complex water rights proceedings and handle the composite wetlands permitting process.

On the wildlife side, a few lawyers assist clients to navigate the complex regulatory requirements connected to the Endangered Species Act, starting from regulatory compliance and counseling, to the expansion of single- and multi-species habitat conservation plans, to the recognition and implementation of multi-forum advances to ESA challenges.

On the court case side, a lot of conservation and land use lawyers have established practices in intricate case and natural resource litigation, trying an extensive variety of cases in state and federal courts.

c) Conservation Education
Conservation Education (CE) assists people of all ages to comprehend and appreciate country's natural resources and study how to conserve those resources for upcoming generations.

Through planned educational experiences and activities embattled to unstable age groups and populations, conservation education allows people to know how natural resources and ecosystems influence each other and how resources can be utilized wisely.

Through conservation education, people widen the decisive thinking skills they require to understand the complexities of ecological problems. Conservation Education as well encourages people to act on their own to conserve natural resources and utilize them in a conscientious manner by making informed resource decisions.

The decline of Earth's biodiversity and the requirement for sustainability practices directs that we require a fresh approach to conservation that conveys to people of every walk of life the essential interdependence of plants, animals, people, and the environment.

This challenge is excessively urgent and very large for any particular organization, government, or discipline to handle alone.

We require practical approaches and fresh partnerships amidst biological and social scientists, government and industry professionals, and citizens to strengthen and protect the intrinsic value of biodiversity, and garner maintenance for sustainable utilization.

CCES studies the multifaceted relationships amongst biodiversity, people, and the environment, and teaches the public about the Earth's biodiversity and how it can be conserved and utilized judiciously.

CCES is committed to enhancing science-related environmental consciousness, biodiversity research and supervising, conservation and the sustainable utilization of Earth's resources.

In modern years, the running down of natural capital and attempts to change to sustainable development has been a main attention of development agencies. This is seen more especially in rainforest regions, which embrace the majority of the Earth's natural biodiversity.

Conservation of natural resources is the main attention of natural capitalism, environmentalism, the ecology movement, and Green Parties. A few see this depletion as a main source of social unrest and conflicts in developing nations.

Some non-renewable resources can be renewable but take an exceptionally long time to refurbish. Fossil fuels, for instance, take millions of years to appear and so are not basically well thought-out as 'renewable'.

Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the administration of forests in relation to the principles of sustainable development. It is as well the current termination in a series of fundamental forest management concepts heralded by sustainable forestry and sustainable yield forestry prior to that.

Sustainable forest management is the expression presently utilized to illustrate approaches to forest management that set extremely broad social, economic and environmental objectives.

A variety of forestry institutions currently practice a range of forms of sustainable forest management and a broad range of methods and tools are accessible that have been tested over time.

Management of Natural Resources
Generally, farmers have pointed to three ways to protect resources by means of traditional technology. They are mechanical, agricultural and vegetative measures.

A) Mechanical Measures
The most important occupation of the hill farmers is agriculture. They regularly construct terraces for cultivation. These terraces are small but there are a lot of them. As a result, it is possible to control rainwater.

Construction of terraces relies on space and grades of land. The farmers, with their expertise, are capable of preparing fields for crop production.

Farmers generate the slopes of the terraces inwards to organize soil erosion and perk up moisture conservation. Soils are made up of gravels and have a high rate of percolation. Due to rainwater retention enough moisture is made accessible to the crops.

On mild slopes farmers create shoulder bunds to protect their lands from soil erosion and plant vegetation over the bunds, especially grasses for fastening the soil.

Irrigation
Farmers used to carry water to their fields through small irrigation channels referred to as gulas. These go from the source of water along the slopes to the fields. In order to avoid seepage losses farmers use pipes.

Management of drinking water
Streams are the source of water in the Himalaya. Farmers give great regard to these water resources. They use the water for drinking and strive to keep streams clean and unpolluted. They sustain vegetation on the banks to have a clean flow without sediment for human consumption.

Water-based industry
In the hills flour mills are not accessible. Farmers have their local technology to run flour mill through water fall. They make use of home-made wooden wheels as turbines to run the mills.

B) Agriculture
Farmers' conventional knowledge of agriculture involves tested technologies in the field. They utilize a particular type of traditional plough. Other forms of 'improved' ploughs do not work in the hills as the soil is made up of gravels and not deep.

Farmers plough their field straight rather than in circles and open parallel furrows for rainwater harvesting and retaining moisture.

Farmers of hill regions have a preference for mixed cropping for reducing the risks under rainfed conditions and generating ground cover for scrutinizing runoff and soil loss. They plant legumes with maize and ginger or turmeric with maize.

Manure And Manuring
In relation to the soil's condition and texture the farmers of the hill region use farmyard manure in the fields prior to sowing. In lowland areas, they as well do green manuring. Although there is increase in the use of artificial manure- fertilisers , farmers retain their belief in traditional methods.

C) Vegetative Measures For Natural Resources Management
Hill farmers plant trees of economic value and suitable to their needs. In order to conserve soil and water they plant grasses for ground cover like Eulaliopsis binnata, Chrysopogun fulvus and agave sps.

Shrubs such as Ipomea icarnea, Arando donex, Dendrocalamus strictus, napier grass, Vitex negundu, Morus alba and bagrera are planted, and in wild form are bhang, lantana, sweet neem, and so on.

There is enormous potential to grow horticulture in the hill ranges due to the undulating topography and climatic conditions.

Farmers are very much aware of the possibility of their lands, but as a result of to poor economic situations and infrastructure it is not probable for them to go ahead with unusual and added profitable land use

NATURAL RESOURCES

from Femosky110 on 06/11/2020 01:56 PM

Conservation Of Natural Resources
Conservation of natural resources refers to the sustainable utilization of natural resources, like soils, water, plants, animals, and minerals, timber, fish, game, topsoil, pastureland, and minerals, and also to the preservation of forests-forestry, wildlife-wildlife refuge, parkland, wilderness, and watershed areas.

 

Conservation of natural resources is currently being embraced in the wider conception of conserving the soil itself by protecting its ability for self-renewal.

For the most part complicated process is the issues that are inherent with nonrenewable resources like oil and coal as well as other minerals of enormous demand.

Present thinking as well favors the protection of the whole ecological regions by the production of "biosphere reserves." Examples of such conservation areas are the Great Barrier Reef off Australia and Adirondack State Park in the United States.

The critical nature of reconciling individual utilization and conservation away from the boundaries of parks has turn into yet another very crucial issue.

The natural resource of an area is made up of its essential capital, and inefficient utilization of those resources leads to an economic loss. From the artistic point of view, conservation as well involves the preservation of national parks, wilderness areas, historic sites, and wildlife.

Natural resources are made up of two major types, renewable natural resources and nonrenewable natural resources.

Examples of renewable natural resources are wildlife and all forms of natural vegetation. The soil itself can be taken as a renewable resource, even though any serious damage to it is not easy to repair due to the sluggish rate of soil-forming processes.

The natural drainage of waters from the watershed of an area can be sustained indefinitely through careful management of vegetation and soils, and the quality of water can be regulated through water pollution control.

Nonrenewable resources on the other hand are those that cannot be replaced or that can be replaced except after an exceptionally long periods of time. Examples of such resources are the fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas as well as metallic ores.

Natural Resources: Wildlife and Conservation Biology
The aim of renewable resource conservation is to make certain that resources are not used up faster than they are replaced. Non renewable resources are fossil fuels and mineral deposits, like iron ore and gold ore.

Conservation activities for nonrenewable resources center on maintaining a sufficient supply of these resources far into the future.

Natural resources are conserved for their biological, economic, and recreational values, in addition to their natural beauty and relevance to local cultures.

For instance, tropical rain forests are shielded for their crucial role in both global ecology and the economic livelihood of the local culture; a coral reef may be sheltered for its entertaining significance for scuba divers; and a scenic river may be sheltered for its natural beauty.

Conservation divergences are experienced when natural-resource shortages build up in the face of progressively increasing demands from a growing human population. Disagreement occasionally envelop the way a resource ought to be utilized, or allocated, and for whom.

For instance, a river may provide water for agricultural irrigation, habitat for fish, and water-generated electricity for a factory.

Farmers, fishers, and industry leaders compete for unlimited right of entry into this river, but a freedom like this may obliterate the resource, and conservation methods are essential to safeguard the river for future use.

The competition gets worst when a natural resource extends across political boundaries. For instance, the headwaters, or source of a main river may be situated in a different country than the country through which the river flows.

There is no assurance that the river source will be safeguarded to provide accommodation reserve requirements downstream. Additionally, the manner in which a natural resource is handled has a direct effect upon other natural resources.

Cutting down a forest close to a river, for an example increases erosion, the wearing away of topsoil, and can result to flooding. Eroded soil and silt cloud the river and has adverse affect on a lot of organisms like fish and essential aquatic plants that need clean, clear freshwater to thrive.

Methods of Conservation
The confrontation of conservation is to comprehend the complicated connections among natural resources and reach a sense of balance between resource utilization and protection to make certain a sufficient supply for potential generations.

In order to accomplish this goal, a variety of conservation methods are used. These include reducing consumption of resources; protecting them from contamination or pollution; reusing or recycling resources when probable; and completely defensive, or preserving, resources.

Consumption of natural resources increases considerably every year as the human population increases and standards of living also increases. The large, developed nations, are responsible for the majority of consumption of natural resources due to their high standards of living.

For example, in 1992 an average American used up as much energy as 27 Filipinos or 370 Ethiopians. Conservation education and the considerate utilization of resources are essential in the developed countries to minimize natural-resource consumption.

For instance, minimizing the high demand for tropical hardwoods like teak and mahogany in the United States and Japan would reduce the rate of tropical forest destruction.

To safeguard natural resources from pollution, individuals, industries, and governments have a lot of obligations.

These obligations prevents or limits the utilization of pesticides and other harmful chemicals, limits wastewater and airborne pollutants, averts the production of radioactive materials, and controls drilling and transportation of petroleum products.

Failure to do so leads to contamination in the air, soil, rivers, plants, and animals. For instance, if governments need that all oil tankers be fitted with double-layered hulls, the damages to fisheries and wildlife from the varieties of oil spills of the 20th century, like the 1967 Torrey Canyon oil spill in the English Channel, may have been minimized.

In a lot of instances, it is likely to reuse or recycle resources to lessen waste and resource consumption and conserve the energy desired to manufacture consumer products. For instance, paper, glass, Freon-a refrigerant gas, aluminum, metal scrap, and motor oil can all be recycled.

A preventative measure known as precycling, a general term for designing more robust, recyclable materials like reusable packaging, encourages reuse.

A few resources are very unique or valuable that they are protected from activities that would destroy or degrade them. For instance, national parks and wilderness areas are protected from logging or mining because such activities would reduce the economic, recreational, and aesthetic values of the resource.

Forests and wetlands -areas with high soil moisture or surface water may be protected from development due to the fact that they improve air and water quality and make available habitat for an extensive variety of plants and animals.

Unfortunately, these areas are frequently susceptible to development due to the fact that it is difficult to estimate the economic benefits of cleaner air, cleaner water, and the majority of other environmental benefits of these ecosystems-the plants and animals of a natural community and their physical environment.

Current Types Of Conservation
There are a lot of fundamental conservation methods utilized in the protection of global natural resources. Although each resource has a unique set of conservation problems and solutions, all resources are interconnected in a complex and little-understood web.

Scientists have learned that damaging one thread of the web may weaken the entire structure. It is important that this connectivity be addressed in the search for solutions to resource shortages.

It would be impractical to work toward the conservation of soil, for instance, without considering the needs and effects of nearby water and vegetation resources.

1. Conservation of Biodiversity, or biological diversity
This refers to the number and variety of various organisms and ecosystems in a particular area. Preserving biodiversity is crucial for ecosystems to react flexibly to damage or change.

For instance, a single-species corn crop may be easily destroyed by a particular insect or disease, but if a lot of various species of corn are planted in the field, a few of them may resist the insect or disease and survive.

Humans gain a lot from the varieties of medicines, crops, and other materials made available by biodiversity. About 40 percent of our present day pharmaceutical medicines are obtained from plants or animals.

For example, a tiny plant from Madagascar, known as the rosy periwinkle, manufactures substances that are efficient in combating two deadly cancers, Hodgkin's disease and leukemia.

Unfortunately, human activities have to a large extent reduced biodiversity all over the world especially the happenings of the 20th century. The highest threat to biodiversity is loss of habitat as humans develop land for agriculture, grazing livestock, industry, and habitation.

The major drastic damage has taken place in the tropical rain forests, which encompass less than seven percent of the Earth's surface but posses above half of the planet's biodiversity.

2. Conservation of Forest
Forests make available a lot of social, economic, and environmental benefits. Additionally to timber and paper products, forests make available wildlife habitat and recreational opportunities, avert soil erosion and flooding, aid in the provision of clean air and water, and possess fantastic biodiversity.

Forests are as well a crucial defense against global climate change. Through the process of photosynthesis, forests create life-giving oxygen and make use of enormous amounts of carbon dioxide, the atmospheric chemical majorly responsible for global warming.

By the reduction of circulating carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, forests may lessen the effects of global warming.

Irrespective of this large areas of thickest forests in the world have been cleared for wood fuel, timber products, agriculture, and livestock. These forests are quickly disappearing.

The countries with the majority of tropical forests tend to be developing and overpopulated nations in the southern hemisphere. As a result of deprived economies, people resort to clearing the forest and planting crops in order to survive.

Although there have been efficient efforts to stop deforestation directly through a lot of multinational organizations that are responsible for abusive logging, the major efficient conservation policies in these countries have been efforts to reduce poverty and make bigger access to education and health care.

3. Conservation of Soil
Soil is a mixture of mineral, plant, and animal materials. It is necessary for the majority of plant growth and is the essential resource for agricultural production. Humans have increased soil erosion processes by developing the land and clearing away the vegetation that holds water and soil in place.

The rapid deforestation occurring in the tropics is particularly damaging because the thin layer of soil that remains is fragile and quickly washes away when exposed to the heavy tropical rains.

4. Conservation of Water
Clean freshwater resources are necessary for drinking, bathing, cooking, irrigation, industry, and for plant and animal survival. Regrettably, the world supply of freshwater is dispersed unevenly. Constant water shortages occur the majority of African country and drought is widespread over the majority of the globe.

5. Conservation of Energy
Every human culture needs the production and utilization of energy—that is, resources with the capability generate work or power. Energy is utilized in transportation, heating, cooling, cooking, lighting, and industrial production.

The world energy resources depends on a lot of various resources which includes traditional fuels like firewood and animal waste, which are important energy sources in various developing countries. Fossil fuels account for more than 90 percent of global energy production but have a lot of problems.

They are nonrenewable and their use causes air pollution. Coal power plants for an example have been one of the worst industrial polluters since the onset of Industrial Revolution of the 19th century.

In addition, mining or drilling for fossil fuels has lead to extended environmental damage.

There is a global need to increase energy conservation and the use of renewable energy resources.

Renewable energy alternatives like waterpower (using the energy of moving water, like rivers), solar energy (using the energy from the sun), wind energy (using the energy of the wind or air currents), and geothermal energy (using energy contained in hot-water deposits within the Earth's crust) are effective and practical but are greatly underutilized due to the ready accessibility of cheap, nonrenewable fossil fuels in industrial countries.

In addition to making use of alternative energy resources like solar and wind power, energy conservation measures as well encompass enhancing energy efficiency. For example, transportation accounts for the majority of the oil consumption in the United States.

Encouraging the expansion and use of public transportation systems and carpooling considerably increases energy efficiency. In the home, energy can be conserved by turning down thermostats, switching off unnecessary lights, insulating homes, and making use of less hot water.

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION

from Femosky110 on 06/11/2020 01:51 PM

Energy Transformation In Nature
The transformations of energy in an ecosystem start first with the contribution of energy from the sun. Energy from the sun is captured through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is reacted with hydrogen obtained from the splitting of water molecules to manufacture carbohydrates (CHO).

 

Energy is stored in the high energy bonds of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP.

Because plant is the first stage in the production of energy for living things, it is known as primary production. Herbivores acquire their energy by consuming plants or plant products, carnivores obtain their by eating herbivores, and detritivores eat the droppings and carcasses of us all.

A trophic level is made up of organisms that make a living in a similar manner i.e. they are all primary producers (plants), primary consumers (herbivores) or secondary consumers (carnivores).

Dead tissue and waste products are manufactured at all levels. Scavengers, detritivores, and decomposers together account for the use of all such "waste. They consume the carcasses and fallen leaves.

They may be other animals, like crows and beetles, but finally it is the microbes that conclude the job of decomposition. Not unexpectedly, the amount of primary production varies a great deal from place to place, as a result of differences in the amount of solar radiation and the accessibility of nutrients and water.

Energy transfer through the food chain is ineffective. This means that less energy is accessible at the herbivore level than at the primary producer level, less at the carnivore level than at the herbivore level, and so on. The outcome is a pyramid of energy, with significant implications for comprehending the quantity of life that can be supported.

Normally, when we think of food chains, we imagine green plants, herbivores, etc. These are known as grazer food chains, because living plants are directly being eaten. In varieties of situations, the main energy input is not green plants but dead organic matter.

These are known as debris food chains. Examples are the forest floor or a woodland stream in a forested area, a salt marsh, and for the most part observably, the ocean floor in very deep areas where all sunlight is put out 1000's of meters above.

In conclusion, even though we have been talking about food chains, in reality the organization of biological systems is much more complex than can be represented by a simple "chain". There are a lot of food links and chains in an ecosystem, and the collection of all these food chains is referred to as food web.

Food webs can be highly complex, where it looks like "the whole thing is linked with everything else", and it is vital to comprehend what are the main crucial linkages in any particular food web.

Energy Flow Through Ecosystems
Ecosystems sustain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients gained from external sources. At the first trophic level, primary producers -plants, algae, and some bacteria make use of solar energy to manufacture organic plant material through photosynthesis.

Herbivores—animals that feed mainly on plants constitute the second trophic level. Predators that eat herbivores make up the third trophic level; if larger predators are available, they constitute still higher trophic levels.

Organisms that feed at many trophic levels for instance grizzly bears that consume berries and salmon are classified at the uppermost of the trophic levels at which they feed. Decomposers, which constitute bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects, break down wastes and dead organisms and return nutrients to the soil.

Typically, about 10 percent of net energy production at one trophic level is transferred to the next level. Processes that lessen the energy transferred between trophic levels consist of respiration, growth and reproduction, defecation, and non-predatory death (organisms that die but are not eaten by consumers).

The nutritional quality of material that is eaten as well determines how competently energy is transferred, because consumers can change high-quality food sources into fresh living tissue more proficiently than low-quality food sources.

The low rate of energy transfer between the different trophic levels makes decomposers usually more significant than producers in terms of energy flow. Decomposers process large amounts of organic material and return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic forms, which are then utilized again by primary producers.

Energy is not recycled during decomposition, but relatively released, mainly as heat. This is why compost piles and fresh garden mulch is warm). The diagram below illustrates the flow of energy (dark arrows) and flow of nutrients (light arrows) through ecosystems.

biology
Energy and nutrient transfer through ecosystems
An ecosystem's gross primary productivity (GPP) is the total sum of organic matter that it produces through the process of photosynthesis. Net primary productivity (NPP) means the total sum of energy that remains available for plant growth after subtracting the fraction that plants use for respiration.

Productivity in land ecosystems by and large increases with temperature up to about 30°C, after which it declines, and is optimistically correlated with moisture. On land primary productivity consequently is topmost in warm, wet zones in the tropics where tropical forest biomes are situated.

In contrast, desert scrub ecosystems have the lowest productivity because their climates are excessively hot and dry.

In the oceans, light and nutrients are significant controlling factors for productivity. In the Oceans light penetrate only into the topmost level of the oceans; therefore photosynthesis takes place in surface and near-surface waters.

Marine primary productivity is topmost near coastlines and other areas where upwelling brings nutrients to the surface, encouraging plankton blooms. Overflow from land is as well a source of nutrients in estuaries and along the continental shelves.

Among aquatic ecosystems, algal beds and coral reefs have the uppermost net primary production, while the lowest rates take place in the open as a result of nutrients lack in the illuminated surface layers.

The number of trophic levels an ecosystem support depends on a lot of factors, which includes the amount of energy entering the ecosystem, energy loss between trophic levels, and the form, structure, and physiology of organisms at every level.

At higher trophic levels, predators are usually physically larger and are able to make use of a fraction of the energy that was manufactured at the level beneath them; therefore they have to forage over more and more large areas to meet up their caloric needs.

Due to these energy losses, the majority of terrestrial ecosystems have a maximum of five trophic levels, and marine ecosystems commonly have a maximum of seven. This dissimilarity between terrestrial and marine ecosystems is probably as a result of the fundamental characteristics of land and marine primary organisms.

In marine ecosystems, microscopic phytoplanktons carry out the majority of the photosynthesis that that takes place whereas plants do the majority of photosynthetic job on land.

Phytoplankton are minute organisms with exceptionally uncomplicated structures, therefore the majority of their primary production is eaten up and utilized for energy by grazing organisms that eat them.

On the contrary, a huge fraction of the biomass produced by land plants like roots, trunks, and branches, cannot be made use of by herbivores for food, therefore proportionately less of the energy preset through primary production moves up the food chain.

Growth rates may as well be a factor. Phytoplankton are exceptionally small but grow very rapidly, therefore they support large populations of herbivores even though there may be smaller amount of algae than herbivores at any given instance.

On the contrary, land plants may take years to grow to maturity, therefore a typical carbon atom stays a longer seat time at the primary producer level on land than it does in a marine ecosystem.

Additionally, locomotion costs are regularly higher for terrestrial organisms than those in aquatic environments.

The simplest way to explain the flux of energy through ecosystems is as a food chain in which energy travels from one trophic level to the other, without leading to more complex relationships between each species.

A few extremely simple ecosystems may be made up of a food chain with just small number of trophic levels. For instance, the ecosystem of the remote wind-swept Taylor Valley in Antarctica is made up of just bacteria and algae that are eaten by nematode worms.

What is most frequently seen is a situation where producers and consumers are linked in intricate food webs with a few consumers feeding at a lot of trophic levels.

A crucial result of the loss of energy between trophic levels is that contaminants gather in animal tissues through a process referred to as bioaccumulation.

As contaminants bioaccumulate up the food web, organisms at top trophic levels can be endangered even if the pollutant is just available to the environment in extremely minute quantities.

Decomposition (or Rotting)
This is the process through which organic materials are broken down into simpler forms of matter. The process is vital for recycling the finite matter that possesses physical space in the biome. Bodies of living organisms start to putrefy shortly after death.

Even though no two organisms decompose in the similar way, they all go through the same chronological stages of decomposition. The science which studies decomposition is in general known as taphonomy.

Difference between abiotic from biotic decomposition (biodegradation)
Aboitic decomposition means degradation of a substance or material through chemical or physical means like the changes that occur during hydrolysis.

The biotic decomposition means the metabolic breakdown of materials or substances into simpler components by living organisms generally through the actions of microorganism. Animal decomposition starts at the moment of death, as a result of two factors:

1. Autolysis-This is the breaking down of tissues by the body's own interior chemicals and enzymes, and

2. Putrefaction- This is the breakdown of tissues by bacteria. These processes discharge gases that are the principal source of the unmistakably putrid odor of decaying animal tissue.

The main decomposers are bacteria or fungi, although larger scavengers as well play a significant role in decomposition if the body is available to insects, mites and other animals.

The main significant arthropods that are mixed up in the process consist of carrion beetles, mites, the flesh-flies (Sarcophagidae) and blow-flies (Calliphoridae), like the green-bottle fly seen in the summer.

The major crucial non-insect animals that are naturally involved in the process comprise mammal and bird scavengers, like coyotes, dogs, wolves, foxes, rats, crows and vultures.

A few of these scavengers as well eliminate and scatter bones, which they swallow at a later time. Aquatic and marine environments have break-down agents that comprise bacteria, fish, crustaceans, worms and a massive amount of carrion scavengers.

Decomposers form a significant part of our ecosystem. They are in fact minute micro-organisms that assist in the maintenance of the ecological balance in our environment. When any living organism dies ,the blood circulation ceases and the body turns static, decomposers begin to alter the matter from complex to simpler substances.

The decomposers work on dead matter and transform them into simpler form leaving behind the manure which makes the soil fertile and makes available suitable conditions for the plants to grow. Owing to this, the ecological cycle continues moving from something like

Plants - Herbivores - Carnivores - Die and Decomposed by Decomposers - Soil - Plants. Decomposers can readily decompose biodegradable substances but can as well decompose non-biodegradable substances. It's just metals, and the like that take thousands of years to get decomposed.

The amount of energy available at each trophic level lessens as it moves through an ecosystem. As small as 10 percent of the energy at every trophic level is transferred to the subsequent level; the remaining is lost mainly through metabolic processes like heat.

FOOD WEB AND TROPHIC LEVEL

from Femosky110 on 06/11/2020 01:50 PM

Food Webs And Trophic Levels
Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are additional important abiotic components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is acquired mainly from the sun. It normally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that as well captures carbon from the atmosphere.

 

By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play a significant role in the movement of matter and energy through the system.

They as well influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers liberate carbon back to the environment and make easy nutrient cycling by changing nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be easily used by plants and other microbes.

Ecosystems are restricted both by external and internal factors. External factors like climate, the parent material which forms the soil and topography, determine the entire structure of an ecosystem and the manner things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem.

Other external factors are time and latent biota. Ecosystems are energetic entities—regularly, they are disturbed periodically and are in the course of recovering from a few disturbances in the past.

Ecosystems in related environments that are situated in different parts of the world can possess a few dissimilar characteristics merely because they are made up of various species.

The introduction can lead to significant shifts in ecosystem function. Internal factors not only regulate the processes of ecosystem but are as well restricted by them and are frequently subject to feedback loops.

While the resource inputs are normally regulated by external processes such as the climate and parent material, the accessibility of these resources inside the ecosystem is regulated by interior factors like decomposition, root competition or shading.

Additional internal factors are disturbance, succession and the types of species within the ecosystem. Even though humans exist and function within ecosystems, their collective effects are huge enough to control external factors such as climate.

Biodiversity influences ecosystem function, just like the processes of disturbance and succession.

Ecosystems make available a lot of of goods and services upon which people rely; the principles of ecosystem administration recommend that instead of managing individual species, natural ought to be managed at the level of the ecosystem itself.

Classifying ecosystems into ecologically standardized units is a crucial step towards efficient ecosystem management, but there is no particular, agreed-upon technique to carry this out.

The living organisms that constitute an ecosystem can be separated into three main groups:

Organisms are divided into autotrophs, heterotrophs and decomposers according to their energy pathways. Autotrophs are those organisms that are capable of manufacturing energy-containing organic molecules from inorganic raw material with the help of fundamental energy sources like sunlight.

Plants are the major example of autotrophs, using photosynthesis.

All other organisms ought to make use of food that comes from other organisms in the form of fats, carbohydrates and proteins. These organisms that feed on others are called heterotrophs.

1. Autotrophs are organisms that can manufacture their own food from the substances present in their surroundings with the help of light (photosynthesis) or chemical energy (chemosynthesis). Producers are green plants that make use of sunlight to manufacture food from nutrients obtained from the soil.

2. Heterotrophs are incapable of synthesizing their own food. They depend on other organisms -- both plants and animals – for their nutritional requirements. Strictly, the definition implies that autotrophs acquire carbon from inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide (CO2) while heterotrophs obtain their reduced carbon from other organisms.

Autotrophs are normally plants; they are as well known as "self feeders" or "primary producers". Consumers/heterotrophs cannot produce their own food and ought to obtain it by eating other animals and plants. All animals are consumers.

They are further classified into herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Herbivores, or plant-eaters, are primary consumers. They are as well source of food for carnivores. Omnivores eat both plant and animal materials.

3. Decomposers: They are mainly bacteria and fungi, which break down the complex substances of dead plants and animals into uncomplicated substances, which are then made accessible once again by producers.

Comparison between Autotroph and Heterotroph
Differences Autotroph Heterotroph
Manufacture own food Yes No
Level in the Food chain Primary Secondary and tertiary
Types Photoautotroph, Chemoautotroph Photoheterotroph, Chemoheterotroph
Examples Plants, algae and some bacteria Herbivores, omnivores and carnivores
Definition An organism that is capable of forming nutritional organic substances through simple inorganic materials like carbon dioxide. Heterotrophs cannot manufacture organic compounds from inorganic sources and as a result rely on consuming other organisms in the food chain.
What they eat or How they eat? Manufacture their own food for energy. They eat plants and animals to get energy.
Energy Production in the eco system:
A) Autotrophs manufacture their own energy through one of the following two methods:

1) Photosynthesis - Photoautotrophs make use of energy from sun to convert water from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air into glucose. Glucose makes available energy to plants and is utilized in the production of cellulose which is made use of in the manufacturing of cell walls.

Examples of photoautotrophs are Plants, algae, phytoplankton and some bacteria.

Carnivorous plants like pitcher plant make use of photosynthesis for energy production but rely on other organisms for other nutrients like nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous. Therefore, these plants are in essence autotrophs.

2. Chemosynthesis - Chemoautotrophs make use of energy from chemical reactions to manufacture food. The chemical reactions are normally between hydrogen sulfide/methane with oxygen.

Carbon dioxide is the chief source of carbon for Chemoautotrophs. Example of chemoautotrophs is bacteria found inside active volcano, hydrothermal vents in sea floor and hot water springs.

B) Heterotrophs live by feeding on organic matter manufactured by or accessible in other organisms. There are two types of heterotrophs:

1. Photoheterotroph – These are the type of heterotrophs that make use light for energy but which cannot make use of carbon dioxide as their carbon source. They obtain their carbon from compounds like carbohydrates, fatty acids and alcohol. Examples are purple non-sulfur bacteria, green-non sulfur bacteria and heliobacteria.

2 Chemoheterotroph – These are Heterotrophs that obtain their energy through oxidation of preformed organic compounds, i.e. by eating other organisms either dead or alive. Examples are animals, fungi, bacteria and more or less every pathogen.

Type of organism Energy source Carbon source
Photoautotroph Light Carbon dioxide
Chemoautotroph Chemicals Carbon dioxide
Photoheterotroph Light Carbon from other organisms
Chemoheterotroph Other organisms Other organisms
The Energy Cycle
All of the energy of life is made available from oxidation, the burning of sugars, as a countless multiplicities of chemical changes occur before they eventually end up once more as water and carbon dioxide. Plants make use of their own sugars for living and growing, but the huge surpluses they manufacture support the rest of the organic world.

Animals are consumers. They either survive by eating directly from green plants, or indirectly by eating other animals that survive by eating green plants. Animals offer recyclable chemicals back to plants through the process of excretion of their body wastes or when their organic remains decompose back into the soil.

Decomposers break down dead plants and animals and allow their components to be returned to the environment and be reutilized.

Therefore, these non-living parts of the ecosystem are cycled from the surroundings to living organisms and back to the surroundings.

At every step in the food chain, much of the potential energy is given out as heat. This type of energy loss limits the number of steps in the food chain to four or five. Energy, which emanates from the sun and is essential for life, cannot be recycled and is lost as it flows one way through the system.

Processes of Ecosystems
This figure with the plants, zebra, lion, etc shows the two main ideas about the way ecosystems operate: ecosystems possess energy flows and ecosystems cycle materials. These two processes are connected but they are not really the same.

Energy flows and material cycles.
Energy is captured into the biological system in form of light energy, or photons and is transformed into chemical energy in organic molecules by cellular processes which include photosynthesis and respiration, and are finally converted into heat energy.

This energy is dissipated, which means that it is lost to the system as heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled. Without the constant input of solar energy, biological systems would soon become extinct.

This is why the earth is an open system with respect to energy.

Elements like carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus enter living organisms in a variety of ways. Plants obtain elements from the surrounding atmosphere, water, or soils.

These nutrients are eaten by animals and during decomposition these materials are not destroyed or lost, but are returned to the environment so the earth is a closed system with regard to elements apart from a meteorite entering the system now and then.

The elements are cycled continually between their biotic and abiotic states within ecosystems. Those elements whose supply is likely to limit biological activity are known as nutrients.

Interaction that exists in an Eco-system
Biotic components and abiotic components of an ecosystem interact with one another and have influence on one another. If the temperature of an area decreases, the life existing there must adapt to it.

Global warming, or the global increase in temperature as a result of the greenhouse effect, will speed up the metabolism rates of the majority of organisms.

Metabolic rate increases with temperature due to the fact that the nutrient molecules in the body are more likely to have contact with as well as react with one another when energized by heat. To adapt to these circumstances, cold-blooded organisms could reside in the shade and not vigorously look for food during daylight hours when the sun is at its brightest.

The carbon and energy integrated into plant tissues (net primary production) is either eaten by animals while the plant is alive, or it remains uneaten when the plant tissue dies and turns into debris. In terrestrial ecosystems, nearly 90% of the NPP are eventually broken down by decomposers.

The remaining is either eaten by animals while still alive and enters the plant-based trophic system, or it is eaten after it has died, and enters the debris-based trophic system. In aquatic systems, the proportion of plant biomass that is being eaten by herbivores is a much higher.

In trophic systems photosynthetic organisms are the primary producers. The organisms that consume their tissues are known as primary consumers or secondary producers—herbivores. Organisms which feed on microbes (bacteria and fungi) are termed microbivores.

Animals that feed on primary consumers are known as secondary consumers- carnivores. Every one of these is referred to as a trophic level.

The sequences of consumption that start from plants to herbivores, to carnivore make up what is known as food chain. In real life situation, the systems are much more complicated than this. In such cases organisms will usually feed on more than one type of food, and may feed at more than one trophic level.

Carnivores may eat a few preys which are part of a plant-based trophic system and others that are part of a debris-based trophic system. A bird for example can feed on both herbivorous grasshoppers and earthworms, which eat debris.

These real life systems, with all the complications make up what is known as food webs instead of food chains.

ECOLOGICAL FACTORS

from Femosky110 on 06/11/2020 01:48 PM

The abiotic factors are known to play a major role in the environment. The lists of abiotic factors are:

 

• clouds,

• weather,

• latitude,

• temperature,

• oxygen,

• salinity,

• soil (edaphic factors),

• air,

• water,

• sunlight,

• humidity,

• topography,

• pH,

• Atmospheric gases.

These lists of the abiotic factors affect the ecosystem differently as well interact with the biotic factors in an environment.

The Soil or Edaphic Factors
The edaphic factors are the abiotic factors that affect the. These factors are subdivided into:

• Soil texture - The texture of the soil varies and depends on particles like clay to larger particles like sand. Sandy soils are suitable for growing plants and are well aerated and are easy to cultivate. Sandy soils cannot keep hold of much water and has few nutrients required for plant growth.

• Soil air - Soil air is the spaces between the soil particles where it is not filled with soil water. The soil air in a particular soil sample determines its firmness.

• Temperature of soil – The temperature of the soil is a crucial factor, temperature of soil less than 30cm is said to be constant although there are seasonal variations. The decaying caused by decay-causing microorganisms is small at lower temperature.

• Soil water - Soil water can be divided into three types - capillary water, hygroscopic water and gravitational water.

• Soil pH – The pH of the soil affects the biological activity of the soil and a few mineral's availability. The pH of soil affects the growth and development of plants.

• The organisms and the decaying material in the soil are referred to as soil solution and this increases the fertility of the soil.

biology
Light
Light is the primary source of energy to more or less all type of ecosystems. The light energy is made use of by the autotrophs to manufacture food by the process of photosynthesis with a combination of other inorganic substances.

The factors of light like its quality, intensity and the length or duration of light play a crucial role in an ecosystem.

• The quality of light affects the aquatic ecosystems environment, the blue and red light is mostly absorbed here and this does not penetrate deep into the water. Some algae have particular pigments that enable them to as well absorb the other colors of light.

• The intensity of light or light intensity depends on the latitude and the season of the year. During the period from March to September, the Southern Hemisphere receives below 12 hours of sunlight whereas it receives more than 12 hours of sunlight during the remaining part of the year.

• A number of plants flower merely during a specific time of the year.

One of the factors is as a result of the length of dark period. Depending on the intensity of light the plants are classified as short-day plants (Example Chrysanthemum sp., Datura stramonium etc.) Long-day plants (Examples - Spinach, barley, wheat, radish, clover, etc.) Day-neutral plants (Examples - Tomato, maize, etc.)

Temperature
Temperature affects the distribution of plants and animals. The occurrence of frost is crucial to determining the distribution of plants as the majority of the plants cannot alter the freezing of their tissues. Below are some examples of the effects of temperature in plants and animals:

• The blooming of flowers either in the day or night is as a result of the temperature difference between day and night.

• Some biennial plants sprout during spring or summer and this is referred to as vernalization.

• Some fruit trees need cold temperature in order to blossom or produce flower in the spring time.

• Animals have a clear distinction between being cold blooded or warm blooded.

• Seasonal migration is observed in a few animals.

Water
Habitats of animals and plants differ greatly. It could range from aquatic environments to the dry deserts. Water is an essential requirement for life and every biotic components of the ecosystem are directly dependent on water for their growth and survival.

Based on the water requirements of plants, they are classified as:

• Hydrophytes (Example - Water lilies)

• Mesophytes (Example - Sweet pea, roses)

• Xerophytes (Example - Cacti, succulent plants)

Land animals are prone to desiccation and these animals demonstrate different types of adaptations in order to prevent this from occurring. Some of the adaptations noticeable in terrestrial animals are:

• Body covering which reduces loss of water.

• A few animals possess sweat glands which are employed as cooling devices.

• The tissues of a few animals such as camel are tolerant to water loss.

• Some insects are known to absorb water from the water vapor directly from the atmosphere.

Wind
Air currents also known as winds are a result of interaction that exists between expansion of hot air and convection in the mid latitudes. This composite interaction affects the earth's rotation and leads to a centrifugal force which lifts the air at the equator. Some of the consequences of wind are:

• Winds as well carry water vapor; which may undergo condensation and precipitate in the form of rainfall, hail or snow.

• It also assists in the dispersal of pollen grains of a few plants as well as in the dispersal of insects.

• Wind erosion as well leads to dispersal of topsoil.

Atmospheric Gases
Atmospheric gases are gases like oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide:

• All organisms need oxygen for respiration.

• Carbon dioxide is utilized by green plants to manufacture food by the process of photosynthesis.

• Nitrogen is essential for all plants and atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by nitrogen fixing bacteria through the action of lightening.

Topography
Topography or shape of the land is the landscape shapes and is determined by the aspects of slopes and elevations. Topography gives diversity to the ecosystems. For instance: The grassland topography is made up of various forms like hills, prairies, cliffs, low lying areas and so on which offers variability to living organisms.

• The aspect of the direction of the land facing also varies as the land facing towards the south or the sun ar hotter and drier than areas in the north, which are away from the sun.

• Slope of on areas is as well crucial due to the fact that water may run downhill and may soak in ground which makes it accessible for plants. The areas in the southern part with slopes will be much hotter and drier than the northern areas with slopes.

Climate
Climate of a region involves the average rainfall, temperature and the patterns of winds that take place in that region. Climate is one of the most crucial abiotic factors of an ecosystem.

• Temperature of an area and the precipitation factor regulates the type of vegetation in the area like whether the region is grassland or a forest.

• The rainfall in an area affects the productivity of the area and the types of plants that would grow and thrive there. For instance: The climate in a grassland ecosystem is dry and hot during the spring and summer and is cool and cold during the winter.

• Precipitation in winter is snow instead of rainfall. During summers, more water is evaporated from the grasslands making the region deficient of moisture.

Abiotic Factors - Affecting an Organism
The properties of temperature, pressure, humidity rainfall, sunshine cloud and wind in a given place and time is what is termed as the weather condition of that place. The average weather conditions of an area, which as well incorporates the atmospheric conditions, season and so on is what made up what is known as the climate.

Climatic Factors - Temperature
Temperature is one of the crucial and alterable environmental factors. It penetrates into all region of the biosphere and deeply influences every forms of life by increasing or decreasing a few of the vital activities of the organism. It is commonly a limiting factor for the growth or distribution of animals and plants.

Climatic Factors - Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour available in the atmosphere. It can be measured by a Hygrometer. Humidity is to a great extent affected by intensity of solar radiation, temperature, altitude, wind exposure, cover and water condition of the soil.

Climatic Factors - Wind
The wind is the air in motion. Wind velocity can be measured with an Anemometer. It is an essential ecological factor of the atmosphere that affects greatly the plant life on flat plains, along sea coasts and at high altitudes in mountains.

Climatic Factors - Rainfall and Water
Rainfall is a source for ground water and relative humidity. The amount of rainfall greatly affects the vegetation as well as animal population of a particular region.

Climatic Factors - Atmospheric Gases
The gases present in the atmosphere are mainly oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen which to a great extent influence the life of living organisms.

Edaphic Factors
The word soil is derived from the Latin word solum meaning earthy material in which plants grow. The science which deals with the study of soil is known as Soil Science, Pedology (pedos = earth) or edaphology (edaphos = soil).

Ecological Adaptations
The phenotype is the physical expression of the organism. The phenotype exhibits variations as a result of variations in the environmental conditions in a habitat.

Aerial Habitat
A few organisms have become secondarily adapted for aerial existence. Organisms that are able to do their activities in the aerial environment are known as aerial or arboreal organisms.

Aquatic Habitat
Water form the habitat of a huge variety of organisms. These organisms are known as aquatic organisms. The aquatic habitat be fresh water or marine environment.

Terrestrial Habitat
Land makes available a wide variety of habitat for the organisms. Organisms whose life depends on land are called as terrestrial organisms.

Hydrophytic Habitat
This is a habitat with excessive water supply. The plants growing in this kind of environment do not face the problems of water loss as a result of transpiration, wilting and drought. They are referred to as hydrophytes.

Ecological Adaptations - Mesophytes
These are land plants which grow in moist habitats and need well aerated soils. They prefer soil and air with moderate humidity. They keep away from soils that are waterlogged and soils that contain great quantity of salts.

Ecological Adaptations - Xerophytes
These are plants adapted to grow in dry habitats. They are divided into three categories on the basis of their morphology and life - cycle pattern.

Ecological Adaptations - Halophytes
The plants, which grow and thrive in salty habitats, are referred to as Halophytes. There is lofty concentration of salts like sodium chloride, MgSO4 and so on in these habitats. As the habitat is physiologically dry as a result of the salt contents, the halophytes exhibits characteristics similar to those of Xerophytes.

Adaptation to Environment In Animals
Animals as well have to face the problem of water scarcity or abundance. They also have to meet a variety of vagaries of nature. Therefor, for their survival under these conditions, animals have as well developed a number of adaptations to meet the challenges.

Adaptation to Environment In Animals
Adaptations for flight are known as volant adaptations. Bats, birds and insects are well adapted for an energetic flight.